The Legends Behind the Odyssey

 For those unfamiliar with Greek and/or Roman mythology it can be difficult to understand not only whom Homer is referencing to in his Odyssey and the legends surrounding them, but the importance of why they're mentioned in relation to Greek culture and their relation to Odysseus's story. The legends mentioned here do not include every myth mentioned or referenced to in the Odyssey but includes the main legends and myths that some how contributed to the story and furthered the plot or would have deepened understanding for the targeted Greek audience.

Mythology held a great significance not only to Greek culture but within the Odyssey as well. Homer used the Odyssey as a reflection upon his culture and the myths he mentions within it tell the audience about the changes as well as the values that he sees will persist throughout the change in Greek culture and life. Mythology in the Odyssey informs the audience of what the values are, for instance, the myth of Tantalus conveys the importance of the respect of family and aversion to the disrespect and harm of family, the myth of Polyphemus speaks of the importance of hospitality and respect of one's home and property, while the myth of Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra is reflective not only of the duality of standards between men and women concerning the value of marriage and expected duties but the importance and practice of death rites in Greek culture.

Mount Olympus and the Twelve Gods

Mount Olympus

Mount Olympus is an actual mountain in Greece and is the tallest one in that immediate region. In relation to Greek Mythology and the Odyssey, Mount Olympus is home to 12 Olympian deities on Mytikas peak. Olypmus was formed after the Olympians battle and victory over the Titans and serves as their meeting hall while the gorges around the mountain peak served as their individualized palaces and residences. Zeus's nine daughters, the Muses also lived in the Olympus mountain range in Pieria.^[1]

Mount Olympus is considered to home to 12 Olympians which include: Zeus, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Aphrodite, Ares, Hephaestus, and Hestia. Persephone and Hades are not considered Olympian deities because they primarily reside in the Underworld. The 12 Olympians vary somewhat depending on different tellings, some include Heracles, Dionysus, Eros (Cupid), Hebes, or Pan in place of Hestia. ^[2]

 Family Tree

 Main Olympians

The Deities of Mt. Olympus can be broken into two categories in relation to their importance to the Odyssey: The Main Olympians and the Secondary Olympians. In this case, the Main Olympians refer to the Gods who have an active role and are mentioned more than once throughout the Odyssey and are listed below; The Secondary Olympians refer to the Gods that may or may not have been mentioned and have little to no role in the Odyssey's progression thus will not be mentioned here.

Zeus

Zeus is the King of the Gods and is the brother of Poseidon and Hades. He is known as the god of storms and has control over lightning, thunder, snow and hail. It's said that Zeus gained  his power of the thunderbolt from the Cyclopes as a gift for destroying his father Chronos.^[3] Chronos was a Titan who was overthrown by Zeus and his siblings, as were the Titans that supported Chronos against the Olympians. After their defeat at the hands of Chronos's children, they were exiled to the deepest pits of Tartarus guarded by Zeus's minions. When the Titans were no longer a threat, Zeus took his sister Hera as his wife and, save for Aphrodite, the rest of the Olympians were made up of Zeus and Hera's children and their siblings.

One of the things that Zeus is most notorious for is his infidelity, he constantly had children with other women, mortal and divine alike. Fairly often, Zeus's children became heroes or the family lines gave birth to heroes. Another result was that Hera would often curse and attempt to destroy or punish the women

of Zeus's affection through raging jealousy and vengeance.^[4]

Relevance to the Odyssey

As the King of the Gods and brother of Poseidon, Zeus plays an interesting role in the Odyssey because he is rarely directly involved though he does encourage or at least allow Athena to meddle with Poseidon's revenge so that Odysseus can be rescued or helped. However, as king of the Gods, Zeus also acts in favor of Poseidon's rage and punishes Odysseus and his men severely for their indiscretion against the Gods. For example, Zeus was the one to shoot down Odysseus's men for eating the cattle of Helios as well as then send Hermes to rescue Odysseus from Calypso.

Zeus, in relation to Odysseus, may have a bias that gives him reason to support and help Odysseus because Odysseus is the great grandson of Zeus through his father Laertes; Like Poseidon, Zeus tended to be protective or supportive of his children, especially since they tended to be loathed by Hera.

Zeus also changes the punishment Poseidon gives to the Phaeacians by advising him to punish them more publicly in order to make  a statement to the Phaeacians that causes them to change their behavior and understand specifically who punished them and for what reason.^[5]

Poseidon

"While other gods took pity on him, one-

Poseidon-still pursued: he preyed upon

divine Odysseus until the end,

...and ever since his son was gouged, the god

who makes earth tremble, though he does not kill

Odysseus, will not let him end his exile."^[6]

Poseidon is one of the brothers of Zeus and is considered part of the 'Triad' that consists of Hades, Zeus  and himself. He is seen as the ruler of the seas and had power over the waves and could cause earthquakes. He was known for his violent rages that punctuated his reign and his wrath was often a characteristic of his children. Poseidon was married to Amphitrite though like Zeus he had several affairs, one of which produced Polyphemus and another which resulted in the royal lineage of Phaeacia.

Relevance to the Odyssey

Poseidon is in a sense the main antagonist in the Odyssey. He is the reason Odysseus is exiled and causes the majority of the strife that prevents Odysseus from returning home. Poseidon's wrath was invoked by the blinding of his son Polyphemus and later by the deception of Athena in helping Odysseus which led to the kindness and punishment of the Phaeacians. 

Relevance to Greek Culture

As the God of the sea, the Greeks were very beholden to his power as well as worshiped him as a very powerful god because of the ocean's role in the survival and prosperity of Greece. To the Ancient Greeks the sea was one of the most important aspects in their lives because Greece was surrounded mostly by water and it influenced their expansion considerably.^[7] Much of their income and colonization was made possible through sailing and Odysseus himself was an accomplished captain and the Phaeacians were blessed by Poseidon with ships that required no captain and were faster than other ships. Due to the ocean's significance to Greek culture and wealth, angering the ruler of it and harming his son could be seen as worthy of the punishment and at least help support the act of hubris and foolishness of Odysseus's action by conveying its grave enormity.

Athena

Hermes

"That said, the keen eyed messenger was quick.

First, to his feet he fastened handsome sandals:

these, golden, everlasting, carried him

with swift winds over seas and endless land.

He took the wand that charms the eyes of men:

some, he enchants with sleep, just as he can,

at will, awaken others, Wand in hand,

Hermes took flight."

Hermes is a fairly popular Olympian with the mortals due to his association with travelers and good luck; in the Odyssey he's often the messenger and servant of Zeus, as well as acts as the ferrier of souls to Hades. Hermes is also famous for his wiliness, cunning and craft and is considered to be a "companion of thieves."^[8]

Because the birth of Hermes came about from one of Zeus's affairs, Hera loathed Hermes and resented his place in Mt. Olympus as a God; however, Hermes decided to win her love by disguising himself as her baby son Ares and after breast feeding him, Hera accepted Hermes.^[9]

Relevance to the Odyssey

Hermes presence in the Odyssey is fairly apparent as is his role as messenger and protector of travelers. Hermes is dispatched by Zeus on Athena's prodding to rescue Odysseus from Calypso, then later appears to give Odysseus advice on how to survive his upcoming encounter with Circe. Near the end of the Odyssey, Hermes is described again as carrying the souls of the suitors Odysseus slew to Hades. He also is credited to have the power to cause and take away sleep, though in the Odyssey it doesn't seem to be an exclusive power.

Relevance to Greek Culture

Hermes was extremely important to Greek culture because of the sheer amount of aspects he was associated with and his importance in the everyday issues of the Greek population. Hermes was "the god of travelers and boundaries, shepherds and cowherds, literature, athletics, invention, weights and measures, commerce, and of thieves and liars."^[10] He assisted travelers and was seen as a friend to mortals and was thus highly regarded by them to the point that they would sacrifice animals to Hermes before any trip to avoid troubles arising as they were traveling. Hermes was also deemed as the least vengeful of the gods and is also considered to be a fertility god due to the numerous children he had with mortals and immortals alike. Hermes is considered the inventor of the lyre,pan-pipes/pan-flute and musical scales, astronomy, all forms of art, introduction of literature, dice, weights and measures, and is considered to be the inventor of several types of athletics all of which greatly defined and shaped Greek culture and the cultures that followed them.^[11]

Hades

Artemis

"And even as the archer Artemis

moves on the cliffs of tall Taygetus

...glad in her pursuit

of boars and speeding deer, and with her sport

the nymphs of field and forest, daughters of Zeus;

...Artemis stands tall among all others,

her head and brow held high, identified

with ease, though all her comrades there are fair..."^[12]

Artemis is the twin sister of Apollo and daughter of Latona/Leto and Zeus. Artemis and Apollo are both attributed to the deaths of mortals where Artemis is in charge of the deaths of women and Apollo is in charge of the deaths of men. Artemis is considered to be the goddess of the hunt, forests, childbirth, and virginity. Artemis is also referred to as the Virgin Huntress and is known for her ferocity against those who insult her or oppose her. She was considered by Homer to be above reproach and holy, and was known for her beauty and power. ^[13]

Relevance to the Odyssey

Artemis is mentioned and referenced to a few times in the Odyssey and usually in relation to death or in appearance. Artemis was referenced to in Hades by Odyssey's description of Ariadne's fate, as well as invoked by Penelope who wished her life to end. Artemis is also mentioned in terms of appearance and stature in relation to Nausicaa.  

Relevance to Greek Culture 

Artemis was important to the women in Greece because she was viewed as a protector of childbirth and death which because of the pain and high chance of death, the worship and sacrifices to her were not considered trivial. Since she was also the goddess of virginity, many cults that worshiped her oversaw the development of young girls into womanhood. ^[14]

The Myths Mentioned in Hades

     The myths mentioned in Hades by Homer each have a specific meaning that somehow tie in or relate back to Odysseus and his situation or his family. The myths of the women Odysseus encounters relate back to the situation surrounding his wife, Penelope and her suitors. They serve as warnings and comfort to Odysseus about the possible states his wife could be in, as well as how she could have turned against him during his absence or how she stayed true to him throughout his journey. The legends of the men serve as a warning against Penelope but also speak to Odysseus's potential battle in the future and how the different follies or weaknesses of his friends caused their downfall and warn Odysseus to be cautious, that even men as great or greater than he can be struck down if they aren't careful. So, the myths serve as parallels and warnings for Odysseus in ways that come to light later and influence his behavior.

Tantalus

"And I saw Tantalus in deep torment;                           

He stood upright within a pool, his chin

just touched by water. But despite his thirst

he could not drink...Above his head,

trees--leafy. high--bore fruit...But just as

soon as he reached out to touch,

winds blew that fruit up toward the shadowed clouds"^[15]

Tantalus was held in high regard by Zeus who allowed him to dine with him and bestowed upon Tantalus the privilege of eating and drinking the food of the Gods. However Tantalus betrayed the Olypmians after becoming arrogant in their favor. Tantalus stole the food he had been given and, betraying Zeus's hospitality, dined on it with his mortal friends. Tantalus went on to perpetrate another much more serious crime against the Gods, sacrilege and insult. Soon after the theft of divine food, Tantalus invited the Gods to his home in a guise of a banquet in their honor; He murdered his son Pelops and cut pieces of him into the stew he served up to the Gods, who were not fooled. In horror and vengeance, Zeus punished him with the ruin of his kingdom and in death made him suffer eternal torment. ^[16]

Relevance to Odysseus

In many ways Tantalus represented Odysseus's exile as do many of the other myths mentioned in Hades. Tantalus's myth in particular parallels Odysseus's crime against Poseidon and establishes Poseidon's right to retribution. Another aspect of this myth that can parallel Odysseus's personal feelings is the sense of longing without resolution or satiation of those wants during his exile. For example, he wishes to go home and see his family and homeland but he runs into obstacles constantly by Poseidon pulling away his transport and thwarting attempts as they happen. The idea that parallels here is that Odysseus cannot reach what he wants and it gets pulled away from him as he reaches for it for much of his journey. ^[17]

Agamemnon and Clytaemnestra

"My fate was readied by Aegithus with the aid

of my conniving wife: inviting me

to feast within his halls, he butchered me

just as one kills an ox within a stall.

And so the death I died was mean and small:

around me, with let, they killed us all..."^[18]

Agamemnon was the King of Mycenae and lead the battle against Troy after his brother Menelaus asked him to help him rescue his wife Helen. After leading the Greeks to victory over Troy and Helen was rescued, Agamemnon took Troy's King, Priam's daughter Cassandra as his concubine and brought her home to his wife, Clytaemnestra.

Clytamnestra was not happy in her marriage with Agamemnon because he took her as a spoil of battle after he killed her first husband Tantalus (who was named after his great grandfather). As their marriage continued, Clytamnestra grew increasingly hateful of Agamemnon which reached a head before he left for Troy; as a ritual to the Gods for "favorable winds," he sacrificed their daughter Iphegenia after tricking his wife into sending her away. In her husband's absence, Clyamnestra took Agamemnon's cousin Aegisthus as her lover.^[19]

As is explained in the Odyssey, Agamemnon and the concubine he brought with him met his fate at the hands of his wife and her lover Aegisthus upon his return from Troy after ten years. He was slaughtered in the banquet hall, though other myths vary on that point and with no regard for his rights to a respectful death, his wife"...did not shut [his] eyes nor did she move to close [his] mouth."^[20]

Relevance to Odysseus

Although Agamemnon did not really contribute much to the plot, his myth serves as a warning for Odysseus about his wife and the state of those that may dwell in his house. It also may serve as a way of portraying the duality or possibility of betrayal at the hands of those Odysseus may consider friends. Agamemnon warns Odysseus, after telling his story to him, to "...not be too open with your wife: do not disclose all that you know; tell her one thing and keep another hidden...moor in secret when you bring your ship...no woman merits trust."^[21] All of this advice Odysseus heeds when he manages to make it home to Ithaca.

Phaedra, Procris, & Ariadne

"And I saw Phaedra, Procris, and Ariadne--

malicious Minos' lovely daughter--she

whom Theseus tried to carry off from Crete

to holy Athens' hill. But their escape

brought no delight to him: along the way,

in seagirt Dia, Artemis was swayed

by Dionysus; she killed Ariadne."^[22]

Ariadne was the daughter of Minos and half sister to the Minotaur. She is often thought of in relation to the Labyrinth myth and is the one that helped Theseus find his way out of the Labyrinth with a ball of string and sword she gave him after falling in love with him instantly. She promised she'd help him on the condition that they'd run away together after his victory. He agreed and they traveled from Crete, Ariadne spurning her family and abandoning them, was soon abandoned by Theseus on a beach away from her home. After this the myth varies on it's outcome. In some they say she was then taken as a wife by Dionysus,^[23] another says she already was the wife of Dionysus and her eloping with Theseus ended in her death as retribution.^[24] It is also plausible that Artemis killed Ariadne in order for her to become a goddess and married to Dionysus forever because of the reference to Dia, which is where Ariadne and Dionysus were married.^[25]

Phaedra was the sister of Ariadne and her story mostly revolves around her marriage to Theseus and her love of Hippolytus. Hippolytus was Theseus' son from one of his previous lovers either Hippolyta or her sister, Antiope. The belief is that Aphrodite had been rejected by Hippolytus as he vowed to be a virgin worshiper of Artemis and Aphrodite punished him by making his stepmother fall in love with him. The common ending to this myth involves Phaedra claiming Hippolytus raped her when her nurse told Hippolytus of her feelings, as a result Theseus cursed him and caused his son's death.^[26]

Procris was the wife of Cephalus and was also accidentally killed by him as well. Procis was told by a servant that her husband called out for a woman to come to him while hunting and distraught at the idea that her husband was unfaithful, followed him into the woods. "When she saw him flop on the grass to cool himself and call, as was his wont, to Zephyri to come relieve him, Procris realized that what she had taken to be the name of a lover was merely a name for the air and nothing more. Joyfully she rose to fling herself into his arms, but hearing a rustling of foliage, Cephalus shot an arrow at what he thought would be a wild beast in the brush. Dying, the woman laments that the breeze by whose name she was deceived would now carry away her spirit, and her husband weeps, holding her in his arms."^[27]

Relevance to Odysseus

In many ways, the women Odysseus met in Hades were references to the possible fates and mistakes that could befall Persephone and to warn against assuming things will be as promised and to be cautionary against rumors. Many of these myths warn against fully trusting things one way or another in relation to the men in his life where the myth related to men seem to be cautionary against the women, mainly Odysseus' wife, in his life.

Other Myths

The Four Winds

"Eurus and Notus and voracious Zephyr

and Boreas, who's born in the bright ether,

attacked together;

...Now Notus cast the craft toward Boreas,

Who drove it on; and Eurus now again

gave it to Zephyr--he became it's master."^[28]

The Four Winds are mentioned several times throughout the Odyssey though are usually referred to individually as opposed to "the four winds" or by their Greek name "the Anemoi." The Four Winds are usually depicted as gods and represent the four cardinal directions.

Boreas

"...But Boreas--

provoked by Zeus, who summons clouds--now swept

against us: a ferocious tempest wrapped

both land and sea; night scudded down from heaven..."^[29]

Boreas is the god of the north wind. Boreas in Greek mythology is considered to be cold and the bringer of winter. He was described as having a violent temper and his name meant "Devouring One." Boreas was also known by the names: Aquilo, Aquilon and Septentrio.

Due to fathering children by a Athenian princess, Athenians considered him a relative and protector and would pray to him for safety.

Notus

Notus was the god of the southern wind and was believed to be the bringer of late summer and storms of autumn. He was associated with destruction due to the effects the storms had on crops. He also went by the name of Auster or Austris and was connected to heavy cloud cover and fog or humidity.

Eurus

Eurus was the god of the east wind and was considered unlucky. He was associated with warmth and rain and went by the name of Vulturnus as well.

Zephyrus

"He left just one wind--Zephyr--free, to speed

my fleet, my men..."^[30]

Zephyrus was the god of the west wind and is the bringer of spring. He is considered to be the most favorable wind and the gentlest. Zephyrus however has a relation to violence done in the name of love and is the servant of Eros(Cupid).

Zephyrus is also referred to as Zephyr and Favonius.^[31]

The Relevance to the Odyssey

The winds have literary significance in the Odyssey due to their usage as scene setters and foreshadowing. Different winds have different connotations and help represent and add to the stress to the scene.

Aeolus

"...he offered me a sack

of hide he'd flayed from a nine-year-old ox.

Into that sack he stuffed the howling winds,

of every sort or course: for Aeolus--

so Zeus had said--was warden of the winds,

to spur or curb just as he willed..."^[32]

Aeolus is the bearer of the winds and is king of Aeolia in the Odyssey; he was considered to be a god or demigod of the winds as well, though in the Odyssey he was simply favored as the Keeper of the Winds by Zeus. Aeolus is believed to be the child of Poseidon or somehow connected to him or another God, though different scholars disagree which is understandable because in Greek mythology there are three seemingly separate Aelouses with similar stories and characteristics.